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Shembja e Bashkimit Sovjetik dhe rënia e regjimeve komuniste shënon një pikë të rëndësishme kthese në historinë europiane. Me fundin e Luftës së Ftohtë filloi edhe zgjerimi gradual i Bashkimit Europian drejt Lindjes dhe përfshirjen brenda tij të pjesës më të madhe të ish-vendeve komuniste. Europa Lindore, me të cilën kuptohej zona sovjetike e influencës, u shndërrua jo vetëm në një hapësirë të zgjerimit të ndikimit të BE-së, por u përfshi edhe në pjesën më të madhe të kufijve brenda kësaj të fundit. Në këtë kuptim, sikundër ka argumentuar Jan Zielonka, Bashkimi Europian shfaq karakteristikat e një perandorie që priret të shtrijë kufijtë e tij drejt periferive. Ballkani, e për rrjedhim edhe Shqipëria, si lagje e jashtme e BE-së është kthyer në një zonë ku struktura europiane kërkon të vendosë kontrollin e saj. Zgjerimi i Bashkimit Europian nuk ka vijuar pa pengesa dhe ndikimi i tij po rivalizohet nga aktorë të rinj që duan ta kthejnë Ballkanin në zonën e tyre të influencës - sikundër është rasti i Rusisë dhe i Turqisë. Krahas me këto dinamika, ka ecur paralelisht edhe fundi i parimit vestfalian i sovranitetit kombëtar. Edhe pse ende larg anëtarësimit në BE, Shqipëria vijon të këmbëngulë të bëhet pjesë e klubit europian si dhe është futur pa asnjë ngurrim në globalizmin neoliberal. Këto zhvillime dëshmojnë këputjen e rëndësishme historike që ka kryer Shqipëria e sotme në raport me atë të përpara vitit 1991. Ndryshimet e rëndësishme strukturore në Europë, prekën sa Ballkanin aq edhe Shqipërinë.
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References
- Fyodor Lukyanov, “Russian Foreign and Defense Policy”, në Russia: Strategy, Policy and Administration, bot. Irvin Studin (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 125.
- Dmitri Trenin, Post-imperium: A Eurasian Story (Washington DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2011), 4.
- Serhii Polkhy, The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union (New York: Basic Books, 2014), XVIII.
- Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: The Free Press, 1992).
- Joseph Rothschild, Return to Diversity: A Political History of East Central Europe Since World War II (New York-Oxford: Oxford University Press), 1993.
- Theodhora Dragostinova, The Cold War From the Margins: A Small Socialist State on the Global Cultural Scene (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2021), 62-95.
- Odd Arne Westad, “The Balkans: A Cold War Mystery”, në The Balkans in the Cold War, bot. Svtozar Rajak e të tjerë (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 358.
- Reinhard Heinisch, “Returning to ‘Europe’ and the Rise of Europragmatism: Party Politics and European Union Since 1989”, në The Routledge History of East Central Europe since 1700, bot. Irina Livezeanu & Árpád Von Klimó (London & New York: Routledge, 2017), 436.
- Westad, “The Balkans: A Cold War Mystery”, 361.
- Trenin, Post-imperium, 25-26 & 32-33.
- Përfaqësues i pesimizmit dhe i pasigurisë që shkaktoi fundi i Luftës së Ftohtë në radhët e mjaft qarqeve politike në SHBA dhe Europë është artikulli i studiuesit amerikan John Mearshaimer në vitin 1990. Në këtë artikull, Mearshaimer parashikonte se fundi i Luftës së Ftohtë do të krijonte një destabilizim të përgjithshëm në krejt Europën dhe luftëra të vazhdueshme, që do të gërryenin çdo themel të hegjemonisë së një superfuqie të vetme në kontinentin e vjetër. John J. Mearsheimer, “Back to the Future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War”, International Security 15, 1 (1990): 5-56; Shih gjithashtu edhe analizën e Barry Posen-it mbi problemet e sigurisë në Europën e pas Luftës së Ftohtë në kushtet e rritjes së tensioneve etnike. Barry Posen, “The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict”, Survival 35, 1 (1993): 27-47.
- Thomas Christiansen & Knud Erik Jørgensen, “Transnational governance “above” and “below” the state: The changing of borders in the new Europe”, Regional and Federal Studies 10, 2 (2000): 65.
- Barry Buzan & Ole Wæver, Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Relations (Cambridge-New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 386-391.
- Mbi subjektin e “perandorisë së ftuar”, pra të rritjes së ndikimit amerikan në Europën Perëndimore të pasluftës, shih Victoria de Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance Through 20th Century Europe (Cambridge, MA - London: Belknap of Harvard University Press, 2005); Geir Lundestaad, The United States and Western Europe since 1945: From Empire by “Invitation” to Transatlantic Drift (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
- Jan Zielonka, “Empires and the Modern International System”, Geopolitics 17, 3 (2012): 507-509.
- Christiansen & Jørgensen, “Transnational governance “above” and “below” the state”, 74-76; Jan Zielonka, “Introduction: Boundary making by thee European Union”, në Europe Unbound: Enlarging and reshaping the boundaries of the European Union, bot. Jan Zielonka (London & New York: Routledge, 2002), 13.
- Jan Zielonka, Europe as Empire: The Nature of the Enlarged European Union (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007); Zielonka, “Empires and the Modern International System”, 502-525; Shih edhe James Caporaso, “The European Union and the Forms of State: Westphalian, Regulatory or Post-Modern?”, Journal of Common Market Studies 34, 1 (1996): 29-52; John Gerard Ruggie, “Territoriality and Beyond: Problematizing Modernity in International Relations”, International Organization 47, 1 (1993): 139-174.
- Klaus Buchenau, “From Foreign Intervention to European Integration: Southeastern Europe since 1989”, në The Routledge Handbook of Balkan and Southeast European History, bot. John R. Lampe & Ulf Brunnbauer (London-New York: Routledge, 2021), 524.
- Mbi procesin e kalimit të rajoneve europiane të Perandorisë Osmane nga Ballkani në Europë Juglindore, shih John R. Lampe, Balkans Into Southeastern Europe: A Century of War and Transition (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
- Mbi shpikjen e Europës dhe procesin e dyfishtë të përfshirjes dhe përjashtimit, shih William Wallace, “Where does Europe End? Dilemmas of inclusion and exclusion”, Europe Unbound, 78-94. Shih sidomos faqen 82.
- Mbi rolin e identitetit në politikën e jashtme të BE-së, Rusisë dhe Turqisë dhe procesit të dyfishtë të përfshirjes dhe përjashtimit, shih Tom Casier, “Identities and Images of Competition in the overlapping Neighbourhoods: How EU and Russian Foreign Policy Interact”, në Security in Shared Neighbourhoods: Foreign Policy of Russia, Turkey and the EU, bot. Rémi Piet & Licína Simāo (Hounsmill, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 13-34; Maria Raquele Freire, “Russian Foreign Policy and the Shaping of a ‘Greater Europe’”, po aty, 35-52; Çiğdem Üstün, “Turkey’s Policies in Its Overlapping Neighbourhood with Russia and the European Union”, po aty, 53-74.
- Andrei P. Tsyganov, Russia’s Foreign Policy: Change and Continuity in National Identity (Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010), 48; Shih edhe Philip G. Roeder, “The Triumph of Nation-States: Lessons from the Collapse of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia”, në After the Collapse of Communism: Comparative Lessons from Transition, bot. Michael McFaul & Kathryn Stoner-Weiss (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 21-57.
- Trenin, Post-imperium, 8.
- Për më shumë mbi politikën e jashtme ruse pas rënies së Bashkimit Sovjetik dhe sindromën perandorake, shih Barbara Fernandes, “Putin’s Foreign Policy Towards Europe: Evolving Trends of an (Un)Avoidable Relationship”, në Shifting Priorities in Russia’s Foreign and Security Policy, bot. Roger E. Kanet & Rémi Piet, Farnham & Burlington, Ashgate (2014), 13-34; Bobo Lo, Russian Foreign Policy in the Post- Soviet Era: Reality, Illusion and Mythmaking (Houndsmill, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 1-97.
- Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 126-127, 138, 260-262, 269-270, 280- 291, 294-296.
- Strobe Talbott, The Russia Hand: a Memoir of Presidential Diplomacy (New York: Random House, 2003), 77-78.
- Christian Thorun, Explaining Change in Russian Foreign Policy: The Role of Ideas in Post-Soviet Russia’s Conduct Towards the West (Hounsmill, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 81-110; Alexei Arbatov, “The Transformation of Russia’s Military Doctrine in the Aftermath of Kosovo and Chechnya”, në Russia Between East and West, bot. Gabriel Gorodetsky (London - Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 2005), 27-31; Margot Light, John Löwenhardt & Stephen White, “Russia and the Dual Expansion of Europe”, po aty, 56-69.
- Diana Bozhilova, “Bulgaria”, në National Perspectives on Russia: European foreign policy in the making?, bot. Maxine David, Jackie Gower & Hiski Haukkala (New York: Routledge, 2013), 189.
- Lev N. Klepatskii, “The New Russia and the New World Order”, në Russia Between East and West, 6.
- Igor Torbakov, After Emppire: Nationalist Imagination and Symbolic Politics in Russia and Eurasia in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Century (Stuttgart: Verlag, 2018), 147-170; Marc Herzog, “Balkan Discourses of the European “Other”: Turkey’s Foreign Policy in South-Eastern Europe Under the Justice and Development Party”, në Balkan Heritages: Negotiating History and Culture, bot. Maria Couroucli & Tschavdar Marinov (London & New York: Routledge, 2016), 189-208; Üstün, “Turkey’s Policies in Its Overlapping Neighbourhood with Russia and the European Union”, 53-74; Cengiz Candar & Graham E. Fuller, “Grand Geopolitics for a New Turkey”, Mediterranean Quarterly 12, 1 (2000): 22-38; Şener Aktürk, “Incompatible Visions of Supra-Nationalism: National Identity in Turkey and the European Union”, European Journal of Sociology/Archives Européennes de Sociologie 48, 2 (2007): 347-372.
- Mbi format e administrimit të Ballkanit nga Fuqitë e Mëdha europiane në shek. XIX dhe fillimit të shek. XX, shih Friedrich Kratchowil, “On Systems, Boundaries, and Territoriality: An Inquiry on the Formation of the State System”, World Politics 39, 1 (1986): 38 & 44.
- John R. Lampe & Ulf Brunnbauer, “Southeastern Europe after the Cold War”, në
- Routledge Handbook of Balkan and Southeast European History, 512.
- Roland Robertson, “Glocalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity-Heterogeneity”, në Global Modernities, bot. Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash dhe Roland Robertson (London: Sage, 1995), 25-44.
- Mbi konceptet e “rajonalizmit etnik” dhe “rajonalizmit kozmopolitan”, shih Christian Giordano, “Ethnic versus Cosmopolitan Regionalism? For a Political Anthropology of Local Identity Constructions in a Globalized World-System”, në Region, Regional Identity and Regionalism in Southeastern Europe, bot. Klaus Roth & Ulf Brunnbauer (Berlin: Lit, 2007), 43-58.
- Charles Maiers, “Does Europe need a frontier? From territorial to redistributive community”, Europe Unbound, 17-37; Shih edhe Pierre Hassner, “Fixed borders or moving borderlands? A new type of border for a new type of entity”, po aty, 38-50.
- James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1998), 11-22.
- Mbi “shpikjen” e kombit shih The Invention of Tradition, bot. Eric Hobsbawm & Terence Ranger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). Mbi kombin si “bashkësi e përfytyruar”, shih Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflection on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London-New York: Verso, 2006).
References
Fyodor Lukyanov, “Russian Foreign and Defense Policy”, në Russia: Strategy, Policy and Administration, bot. Irvin Studin (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 125.
Dmitri Trenin, Post-imperium: A Eurasian Story (Washington DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2011), 4.
Serhii Polkhy, The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union (New York: Basic Books, 2014), XVIII.
Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: The Free Press, 1992).
Joseph Rothschild, Return to Diversity: A Political History of East Central Europe Since World War II (New York-Oxford: Oxford University Press), 1993.
Theodhora Dragostinova, The Cold War From the Margins: A Small Socialist State on the Global Cultural Scene (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2021), 62-95.
Odd Arne Westad, “The Balkans: A Cold War Mystery”, në The Balkans in the Cold War, bot. Svtozar Rajak e të tjerë (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 358.
Reinhard Heinisch, “Returning to ‘Europe’ and the Rise of Europragmatism: Party Politics and European Union Since 1989”, në The Routledge History of East Central Europe since 1700, bot. Irina Livezeanu & Árpád Von Klimó (London & New York: Routledge, 2017), 436.
Westad, “The Balkans: A Cold War Mystery”, 361.
Trenin, Post-imperium, 25-26 & 32-33.
Përfaqësues i pesimizmit dhe i pasigurisë që shkaktoi fundi i Luftës së Ftohtë në radhët e mjaft qarqeve politike në SHBA dhe Europë është artikulli i studiuesit amerikan John Mearshaimer në vitin 1990. Në këtë artikull, Mearshaimer parashikonte se fundi i Luftës së Ftohtë do të krijonte një destabilizim të përgjithshëm në krejt Europën dhe luftëra të vazhdueshme, që do të gërryenin çdo themel të hegjemonisë së një superfuqie të vetme në kontinentin e vjetër. John J. Mearsheimer, “Back to the Future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War”, International Security 15, 1 (1990): 5-56; Shih gjithashtu edhe analizën e Barry Posen-it mbi problemet e sigurisë në Europën e pas Luftës së Ftohtë në kushtet e rritjes së tensioneve etnike. Barry Posen, “The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict”, Survival 35, 1 (1993): 27-47.
Thomas Christiansen & Knud Erik Jørgensen, “Transnational governance “above” and “below” the state: The changing of borders in the new Europe”, Regional and Federal Studies 10, 2 (2000): 65.
Barry Buzan & Ole Wæver, Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Relations (Cambridge-New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 386-391.
Mbi subjektin e “perandorisë së ftuar”, pra të rritjes së ndikimit amerikan në Europën Perëndimore të pasluftës, shih Victoria de Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance Through 20th Century Europe (Cambridge, MA - London: Belknap of Harvard University Press, 2005); Geir Lundestaad, The United States and Western Europe since 1945: From Empire by “Invitation” to Transatlantic Drift (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
Jan Zielonka, “Empires and the Modern International System”, Geopolitics 17, 3 (2012): 507-509.
Christiansen & Jørgensen, “Transnational governance “above” and “below” the state”, 74-76; Jan Zielonka, “Introduction: Boundary making by thee European Union”, në Europe Unbound: Enlarging and reshaping the boundaries of the European Union, bot. Jan Zielonka (London & New York: Routledge, 2002), 13.
Jan Zielonka, Europe as Empire: The Nature of the Enlarged European Union (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007); Zielonka, “Empires and the Modern International System”, 502-525; Shih edhe James Caporaso, “The European Union and the Forms of State: Westphalian, Regulatory or Post-Modern?”, Journal of Common Market Studies 34, 1 (1996): 29-52; John Gerard Ruggie, “Territoriality and Beyond: Problematizing Modernity in International Relations”, International Organization 47, 1 (1993): 139-174.
Klaus Buchenau, “From Foreign Intervention to European Integration: Southeastern Europe since 1989”, në The Routledge Handbook of Balkan and Southeast European History, bot. John R. Lampe & Ulf Brunnbauer (London-New York: Routledge, 2021), 524.
Mbi procesin e kalimit të rajoneve europiane të Perandorisë Osmane nga Ballkani në Europë Juglindore, shih John R. Lampe, Balkans Into Southeastern Europe: A Century of War and Transition (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
Mbi shpikjen e Europës dhe procesin e dyfishtë të përfshirjes dhe përjashtimit, shih William Wallace, “Where does Europe End? Dilemmas of inclusion and exclusion”, Europe Unbound, 78-94. Shih sidomos faqen 82.
Mbi rolin e identitetit në politikën e jashtme të BE-së, Rusisë dhe Turqisë dhe procesit të dyfishtë të përfshirjes dhe përjashtimit, shih Tom Casier, “Identities and Images of Competition in the overlapping Neighbourhoods: How EU and Russian Foreign Policy Interact”, në Security in Shared Neighbourhoods: Foreign Policy of Russia, Turkey and the EU, bot. Rémi Piet & Licína Simāo (Hounsmill, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 13-34; Maria Raquele Freire, “Russian Foreign Policy and the Shaping of a ‘Greater Europe’”, po aty, 35-52; Çiğdem Üstün, “Turkey’s Policies in Its Overlapping Neighbourhood with Russia and the European Union”, po aty, 53-74.
Andrei P. Tsyganov, Russia’s Foreign Policy: Change and Continuity in National Identity (Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010), 48; Shih edhe Philip G. Roeder, “The Triumph of Nation-States: Lessons from the Collapse of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia”, në After the Collapse of Communism: Comparative Lessons from Transition, bot. Michael McFaul & Kathryn Stoner-Weiss (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 21-57.
Trenin, Post-imperium, 8.
Për më shumë mbi politikën e jashtme ruse pas rënies së Bashkimit Sovjetik dhe sindromën perandorake, shih Barbara Fernandes, “Putin’s Foreign Policy Towards Europe: Evolving Trends of an (Un)Avoidable Relationship”, në Shifting Priorities in Russia’s Foreign and Security Policy, bot. Roger E. Kanet & Rémi Piet, Farnham & Burlington, Ashgate (2014), 13-34; Bobo Lo, Russian Foreign Policy in the Post- Soviet Era: Reality, Illusion and Mythmaking (Houndsmill, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 1-97.
Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 126-127, 138, 260-262, 269-270, 280- 291, 294-296.
Strobe Talbott, The Russia Hand: a Memoir of Presidential Diplomacy (New York: Random House, 2003), 77-78.
Christian Thorun, Explaining Change in Russian Foreign Policy: The Role of Ideas in Post-Soviet Russia’s Conduct Towards the West (Hounsmill, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 81-110; Alexei Arbatov, “The Transformation of Russia’s Military Doctrine in the Aftermath of Kosovo and Chechnya”, në Russia Between East and West, bot. Gabriel Gorodetsky (London - Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 2005), 27-31; Margot Light, John Löwenhardt & Stephen White, “Russia and the Dual Expansion of Europe”, po aty, 56-69.
Diana Bozhilova, “Bulgaria”, në National Perspectives on Russia: European foreign policy in the making?, bot. Maxine David, Jackie Gower & Hiski Haukkala (New York: Routledge, 2013), 189.
Lev N. Klepatskii, “The New Russia and the New World Order”, në Russia Between East and West, 6.
Igor Torbakov, After Emppire: Nationalist Imagination and Symbolic Politics in Russia and Eurasia in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Century (Stuttgart: Verlag, 2018), 147-170; Marc Herzog, “Balkan Discourses of the European “Other”: Turkey’s Foreign Policy in South-Eastern Europe Under the Justice and Development Party”, në Balkan Heritages: Negotiating History and Culture, bot. Maria Couroucli & Tschavdar Marinov (London & New York: Routledge, 2016), 189-208; Üstün, “Turkey’s Policies in Its Overlapping Neighbourhood with Russia and the European Union”, 53-74; Cengiz Candar & Graham E. Fuller, “Grand Geopolitics for a New Turkey”, Mediterranean Quarterly 12, 1 (2000): 22-38; Şener Aktürk, “Incompatible Visions of Supra-Nationalism: National Identity in Turkey and the European Union”, European Journal of Sociology/Archives Européennes de Sociologie 48, 2 (2007): 347-372.
Mbi format e administrimit të Ballkanit nga Fuqitë e Mëdha europiane në shek. XIX dhe fillimit të shek. XX, shih Friedrich Kratchowil, “On Systems, Boundaries, and Territoriality: An Inquiry on the Formation of the State System”, World Politics 39, 1 (1986): 38 & 44.
John R. Lampe & Ulf Brunnbauer, “Southeastern Europe after the Cold War”, në
Routledge Handbook of Balkan and Southeast European History, 512.
Roland Robertson, “Glocalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity-Heterogeneity”, në Global Modernities, bot. Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash dhe Roland Robertson (London: Sage, 1995), 25-44.
Mbi konceptet e “rajonalizmit etnik” dhe “rajonalizmit kozmopolitan”, shih Christian Giordano, “Ethnic versus Cosmopolitan Regionalism? For a Political Anthropology of Local Identity Constructions in a Globalized World-System”, në Region, Regional Identity and Regionalism in Southeastern Europe, bot. Klaus Roth & Ulf Brunnbauer (Berlin: Lit, 2007), 43-58.
Charles Maiers, “Does Europe need a frontier? From territorial to redistributive community”, Europe Unbound, 17-37; Shih edhe Pierre Hassner, “Fixed borders or moving borderlands? A new type of border for a new type of entity”, po aty, 38-50.
James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1998), 11-22.
Mbi “shpikjen” e kombit shih The Invention of Tradition, bot. Eric Hobsbawm & Terence Ranger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). Mbi kombin si “bashkësi e përfytyruar”, shih Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflection on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London-New York: Verso, 2006).